Pastures of Pakistan

PASTURE RESOURCE OF PAKISTAN

The total pasture area in different parts of Pakistan is presented in below table-1. Due to misuse and centuries of overgrazing, the productivity of rangelands has been adversely affected. FAO (1987) has reported a critical stocking rate of 16 ha/animal unit for low potential ranges. At present, rangelands are producing only 10 to 15% of their potential. This low productivity can be increased by adopting various management practices such as periodic closures, re-seeding, and improved grazing management etc. Small-holders raise ruminants in limited numbers in conjunction with food and cash crop production. Although cropping patterns vary from region to region, they dictate forage quantity and quality throughout the year.

Pastures resources in irrigated areas

In this system, cut-and-carry feeding plays a vital role in ruminant production. Every farmer allocates a piece of land for planting fodder crops in irrigated areas of Pakistan. Usually milking buffaloes and cows are stall-fed with green fodder and concentrates. The non-milking and draught animals are maintained on straws, maize stovers, and community grazing lands. During summer, most land is planted with sorghum, maize, cotton, rice, and sugarcane. Forage sorghum, millet, and maize provide the bulk of fodder for stall-feeding. Most of the area after rice and cotton harvest remains in fallow and is used for grazing of volunteer species. During winter every farmer plants mixtures of Egyptian clover (Trifolium aegyptium) and oats (Avena sativa) according to the land holding and herd size. Mixtures of berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) with rice and wheat straw also provide feed during winter. Other crop residues such as dry maize and sorghum stalks, sugar cane tops, and rice stubble are also a component of livestock diets. With the increased demand for milk, meat, and other dairy products, some farmers cultivate large areas with lucerne (Medicago sativa), berseem, oats, maize, and sorghum around the big cities and sell green fodder to farmers raising buffaloes and dairy cows. Urban cattle also graze on vegetable and fruit wastes. Community and government wastelands are utilized to some extent.

Pasture resources in rainfed areas

Nearly 24% of the rainfed tract of the country is unfit for agronomic or forestry crops due to unfavourable soil or climatic conditions. These large areas of land produce grasses and bush. Livestock alone are capable of utilizing this extensive and renewable natural resource. Animal husbandry thus occupies a vital place in the economy of the rainfed areas. Natural grazing on the vast rangelands provides about 20% of the nutritional requirements of cattle and 60% of that of sheep and goats. The flocks and herds of the land-less farmers subsist almost entirely on the rangelands. However, they have been badly over-grazed, and palatable species of grass have perished and been replaced by vegetation that livestock do not relish. The carrying capacity of rangelands has thus been greatly reduced to 10 to 50% of potential.

Table-1: Area or Rangelands in Pakistan

Province	Total Area (M ha)	Rangeland Area (M ha)	Percentage of Provincial Area (%)
Balochistan	34.7	27.4	79
Sindh	14.1	7.8	55
Punjab	20.6	8.2	40
KPK	10.2	6.1	60
Northern Areas	7.0	2.1	30
Azad Kashmir	1.3	0.6	45
Total	88.0	45.2	51

Source: FAO, Pakistan.

The number of animals grazed is 3–4 times the carrying capacity of the rangelands. This not only causes a very poor state of health and production of livestock, but also widespread denudation and damage from water and wind erosion. The situation is further aggravated by the seasonal migration of large numbers of animals belonging to nomadic grazers, such as the Bakarwals from Kaghan (who spend the winter in the Pothwar and salt grass rangelands) and the nomadic tribes from Baluchistan and even Afghanistan in the D.G. Khan piedmont areas. The herders exploit the rangelands and contribute little to the conservation, sustainable utilization or improvement of the rangelands. Supplementary feed must be provided to the livestock, especially during periods of drought and scarcity. For instance, perennial grasses, such as sudan grass, Bajra Napier hybrid, or sorghum hybrids could be grown on part of the cultivated land. Green fodder from these crops could be cut during the dry periods to improve feed supply during the lean period. Rapeseed can provide green fodder during January and February, even in drier areas. A system of mixed farming is practised in some areas of this system, with crop and livestock husbandry very intimately integrated. This is reflected in the cropping pattern. Although separate areas of land are not set aside for fodder crops, there is often an admixture of crops with a view to obtaining some fodder for supplemental feeding of livestock. In large parts of the Barani areas during winter, the wheat and barley crops have admixtures of rapeseed, chickpeas, and mustards. The summer crops have admixtures of maize, millets, sorghum, and guar. Some part of every crop is fed to livestock. This pattern of agriculture has several effects:

• Makes it possible for nutrients from the soil to be derived from two levels due to differing depths of the root systems.

• Increases soil fertility by combining cereals with leguminous crops that have the ability to increase soil nitrogen through the microbes in their root systems.

• Avoids total crop failure in case of absence of rains because of the generally lower water requirements of the crops from which fodder is obtained. One or two cuttings are often obtained from wheat etc. for fodder purposes. This cropping pattern has evolved to meet the food and market requirements in a traditional setting.

Pasture resources in natural rangelands

The vegetation of Pakistan has great complexity, comprising a wide variety of vegetation types, including desert, tropical, Mediterranean, and temperate ecosystems. These rangelands extend from temperate alpine pastures in the northern areas, to Mediterranean rangelands in the western mountains, and to the semi-arid and desert lands of the Indus Valley. Elevation ranges from sea level in the Thar Desert of Sindh Province to over 8800 m in the northern mountain region of the Himalayas. The rangelands of Pakistan have been divided into five major groups (FAO, 1987; Mohammad, 1989; Umrani et al., 1995). A brief description of each group is given below.

(a) Sub-alpine temperate zone. This zone lies between 2 000 m altitude and the snow line in Azad Jammu, Kashmir, Swat, Kaghan valleys, and northern areas. These areas provide excellent forage for livestock grazing during summer growing seasons (Khan, 1979). The major improved grass species found in the rangelands are Festuca arundinacea, Lolium spp., and Potarium sanguiserba.

(b) Sub-tropical humid zone. The sub-tropical humid zone is represented by chir pine forests but kail forests also occur on relatively higher slopes in Northern Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. The altitude varies from 1 000 to 2 000 m. Winters are very cold and grazing is only possible for 2–3 months during the summer season. The dominant introduced grass species are Chloris gayana and Dicanthium annulatum.

(c) Sub-tropical sub-humid zone. The sub-tropical sub-humid zone covers Pothwar tract and the Salt Range. Soil erosion is a major problem. The zone has high potential for range re-seeding. The major introduced grass species include Chrysopogon aucheri, Chyrosopogon montanus, Panicum antidotale, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Pennisetum lanatum, Cynodon dactylon, Saccharum apontaneum and Aristida depressa.

(d) Arid, semi-arid desert plains. The Thal, Cholistan, D. G. Khan and Tharparker are located in this zone. High temperatures and wind erosion are major constraints. Rangelands in this zone have been heavily over-grazed by local livestock. The major introduced grass species are Cenchrus ciliaris, Lasiurus sindicus, and Pennisetum orientale.

(e) Mediterranean zone. The high lands of Balochistan including Quetta and Kalat Divisions are located in the zone. Low and erratic rainfall of less than 300 mm is received during winter. Nomadic and local livestock graze these rangelands heavily. The important grass species include Agropyron desertorum, Chrysopogon aucheri, and Elmus junceus.

Seed Production for Pasture Species

Pakistan possesses optimum climatic conditions for seed production of various pasture species. Despite a range of research programmes in all four Provinces of Pakistan, conscious efforts have not been made to produce sufficient quantities of seeds of the required forage grasses and legumes. The main reason may be absence of a local market for pasture seeds. On the other hand, Pakistan produces sufficient quantities of seeds of cultivated fodder cereals and legumes (Khan and Bhatti, 1996). Also, private seed companies produce and import seeds of some cultivated fodder crops.

Community Displacement due to Diamer Bhasha Dam

Rationale:

The project is located on Indus River, about 315 km upstream of Tarbela Dam, 165 km downstream of the Northern Area capital Gilgit and 40 km downstream of Chilas. The proposed dam would have a maximum height of 270 m, and imvpound a reservoir of about 7,500,000 acre feet (9.25×109 m3), with live storage of more than 6,400,000 acre feet (7.89×109 m3). Mean annual discharge of Indus River at the site is 50,000,000 acre feet (6.2×1010 m3). Thus the dam will impound 15% of the annual river flow. The dam project would cover an area of 110 km2 and extend 100 km upstream of the damsite up to Raikot Bridge on Karakoram Highway (KKH).

WAPDA was initially considering construction of the project offices, laboratories and residential colony for Diamer Basha Dam Project in District Kohistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. However, due to demand of affectees of Thore Valley District Diamer, Gilgit-Baltistan, the location of the project offices, laboratories and residential colony was changed from Kohistan to Thore Valley in Diamer district, on a commitment that the affectees would vacate their houses voluntarily as and when needed by WAPDA for Civil Works. After payment of land compensation they would settle at the places of their choice on their own. It was further agreed between WAPDA and affectees of Thore valley that they would not claim any resettlement in model villages to be developed by WAPDA for the affactees of DBD Project. On this understanding, the Thore valley was not included in the Resettlement Action Plan in terms of any resettlement package except compensation pertaining to price of land and other assets lost by the affectees.

The Chairman directed the General Manager (LA&R) and his team of Specialists to visit Thore valley district Diamer, interact with the affectees and formulate a Corrective Action Plan for the resettlement and rehabilitating of the affectees after their consultation with the stakeholders. The LA&R team under the supervision of GM (LA&R) paid several interactive visits to the Thore Valley. They carried out social mapping of the affected population, collected social-economic data and carried out need assessment and household survey. The team met with district administration, line agencies, MLAs, elders and Ulemas. They also had several meetings with the affectees, discussed resettlement issues with them and finally called a large Jirga meeting in which various decisions were taken. Based on the socioeconomic survey, consultation, discussion sessions and need assessment with the affectees, Jirga members, notables, administration of Diamer District (Chilas), a Corrective Action Plan for resettlement and rehabilitation of affectees of Thore Valley has been prepared.[1]

Following discussed are the issues of the community displacement and the compensations offered to them by the Government.

Landlessness:

The land acquisition of Thore valley for the construction of project colony has been completed. It was sorted that out of the total 2200 there are 970 households which were affected the most and have been paid compensation besides the other 1330 as the first phase of financial disbursement. After receiving price of land, out of total 970 families affected due to this first intervention, their houses were vacated. Remaining  families which are residing still in their old dwellings at site have demanded that they may not be displaced from their houses till they are properly resettled.

Joblessness:

The displaced community faced an acute disturbance of the employment and hence it was supposed by the Government officials to compensate them by hiring the locals for Dam development jobs from BPS[2] Grade 1 to 10 in the construction activities in WAPDA colony. Therefore, it was that these people should be given employment compensation in Thore valley.

Homelessness:

Interaction of LA&R team with affectees of Thore Valley and other stakeholders and consultative process to ascertain their resettlement issues and their probable solutions. In accordance with the directions of the Chairman WAPDA, the GM (LA&R) spear headed his LA&R team and proceeded to Diamer Chilas (G-B) and thereafter interacted with the affectees of Thore Valley (131 households) who have recently been affected by the first intervention of construction of Project Colony of Diamer Basha Dam Project.

Marginalization:

As the USA had agreed to provide $200 million for Basha dam.[3] The lead syndicate for Diamer-Bhasha dam under Asian Development Bank had been established and had asked the WAPDA officials to fill gaps by focusing more on social aspects of the displaced population and placing dispute resolution mechanism for making this project ‘bankable’ for international investors.

Food security:

Due to shortage of land and wheat being the major staple food, the quota must be doubled for the affectees of Thore valley. WAPDA must carry out some Water Supply schemes which should be done for the affectees of Thore Colony who had temporarily settled at other remote locations of the valley. The contractors must be asked to avoid polluting waters of Thore stream as people living downstream cannot use the same water for drinking. In the feasibility by the government of Pakistan, It was settled that an area of 6.1 kilometers would be given to the communities for their agricultural wellbeing and 30 veterinary clinics would be established with 8 full time veterinary doctors and skilled attendants for each of the veterinary clinic.[4]

Morbidity and mortality:

A team of eight doctors from WAPDA Hospital, Lahore comprising of Eye Specialist, Child Specialist, General Physician and Medical Officers was deployed at the camp. Total 925 patients including 231 males, 278 female and 416 children upto age of 12 years were treated in the camp. Free medicines were supplied to all the patients who came for treatment in the camps. Hence there is an unavailability of the healthcare facilities, not reported with any of the sources. It is observed that the mortality and morbidity data is absent for the region from before the project initiation.

Loss of access to common property resource:

As the community displacement mostly covered the agriculture land loss followed by the educational infrastructures. It was settled that the children of affectees of Thore valley should be given admission in the School and Colleges of WAPDA colony. Community Madrassa Schools will be developed as the Government system of school education for girls is not acceptable to the community for various reasons. Hence, on the recommendations and aspirations of the affectees, the Community Madrassa School for girls would also be established. It was proposed that a special quota must be given to the affectees’ children in Medical Colleges all over the country as a sign of compensation and their contribution for the nation building.

Addition to that, a 100 kilometers compensation was provided to the communities as the relief of their property rights drained under the dam area.[5]

Community disarticulation

The overall displacement constitute 30 villages containing to nearly 2200 households. The average members per household were assessed 10 individuals and the statistics showed that there were 22000 population affected by the project implementation. The influence of the project was mainly focused on 97 households leaving the rest to switch to the resources instead of resettlement. The displaced community faced the dilemma of loss of 1500 acres of agricultural land. The reservoir would cover an area of 25000 acres. Nine new settlements were proposed by the government official team for the communities compensation for the agriculture and resettlements. Though the objectives of the dam construction mainly covers the hydroelectric production for nation need based resource. [6]

On April 4, 2008, it was reported in several major South Asian newspapers that Buddhist artifacts, possibly numbering in the thousands, have been recovered at the site of the Diamer-Basha Dam. According to certain reports, the beleaguered engineering firm Lahmeyer International, which has been involved in planning out the dam, has suggested a museum be built to house the artifacts. Also, an unnamed German scholar affiliated with a German archaeological university (possibly the German Archaeological Institute) has traveled to Pakistan to study the artifacts.

The Government of Pakistan has now decided to secure and relocate all items of archaeological significance from the areas that will be inundated by the Diamer-Bhasha Dam and its reservoir and to place them in a newly constructed museum near the Dam site. The history reveals that this incident took place in the era of Great Asoka when the Buddhism was shifted to the Afghan region.

---

[1] Monitoring Report of Diamer Bhasha Dam, WAPDA, 2009.

[2] Basic Pay Scale

[3] http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-3-96493-US-ADB-agree-to-finance-Diamer-Bhasha-Dam

[4] http://www.diamerbhasha.com/aboutbhasha.html

[5] ADB, rerpot, 2006.

[6] The official website of the project: http://www.diamerbhasha.com/aboutbhasha.html

Climate Smart Yak Farming in Gilgit-Baltistan

Climate Smart Yak Farming in Gilgit-Baltistan

Author: Maaz Maqsood Hashmi

Gilgit- Baltistan lies in the northern high altitudes of Pakistan where out of 72,500 km², only 2% is cultivated land with larger livelihood dependency on 52% rangeland/alpine pastures as key source of livestock (yak) grazing and household energy. The local communities, although subsistence based, largely depend on integrated farming of livestock and agriculture since centuries. The climate change impact is now becoming visible through drastic shifts from traditional cropping patterns to cash crops like potato production and adaptation by outmigration for employment. Yak is a multipurpose but neglected livelihood animal with a comparative advantage in mountainous Gilgit-Baltistan where milk and meat products are major subsistence source of marginalized communities. Outmigration of youth in particular is an emerging concern for sustainable mountain farming systems. RRA survey was conducted in 2014 to assess the visibility of climate change and adaptive capacity of local pastoral communities in yak ecosystems. The findings of the survey showed that yak production is under change stress and becoming threatened because of inbreeding, limiting access to alpine pastures due to glacier anomaly and lack of work force. The local yak gene pool is now going through a genetic shift possibly in response to climate change as the number of F₁ yak cattle hybrids (Zo/zomo) is changing at lower altitudes. In view of these findings, climate smart farming integration to sustaining pastoral livelihoods is being proposed particularly for yak producers. It highlights the need for yak conservation and breed improvement through transboundary collaboration. Yak based livelihoods require strengthening in terms of introducing innovative technologies and practices like cultivation of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), Russian olive (Elaegnus angustifolia) and market based value chain of yak products in yak ecosystems.

Fog Harvesting

Assessment of Fog Harvesting Potential in Pakistan

Maaz Maqsood Hashmi^*, Uzma Majeed, Kanwal Waqar

Abstract

The airborne potable water already exist in at least 17 nations. Large mesh structures, of hundreds of square meters each, could be set up relatively inexpensively; once in place, they cost virtually nothing to operate. Pakistan is the country with one of the most effective river systems and water sources. Alternate water harvesting techniques can aid the water resilience. Fog, although a seasonal but, is an unattended water resource in Pakistan. Fog harvesting potential is there to carry on. The fog in plain areas like Lahore is contaminated with the silicon pollutants, the reason is that the farmers used to burn off the rice straw and it condenses down with the fog. The major finding of this study comprised that fog may be transformed into water so that keeping the mobility in order by running the airports and land tracks efficiently.

Kitchen Water for Kitchen Gardening

Kitchen Water for Kitchen Gardening

Author: Maaz Maqsood Hashmi (maazmh@hotmail.com)

Kitchen gardening is the small scale farming of vegetables mostly for domestic use or kitchen use. At present, the water availability the issue of every nations interest. Conservation of used water on small scale could be an strategy for sustainable livelihood resilience. 

The buildings with marble or cemented flooring requires the cleaning with water. Mostly the water is drained in to the sewage lines. This water is good source for irrigating the kitchen gardening area. Below given figures explains the simple procedure to irrigate the small scale kitchen gardening areas and lawns using the used water or rain water.

Following model demonstrated the working;

a) Washing the floor with water, this water is then used for watering the lawns/vegetables:

b) Using a standard water bottle for transportation of used water to gardening area:

Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review ISSN 2315-6880 Vol. 4(1) pp. 001-004 January 2015

Available online http//www.basicresearchjournals.org
Copyright ©2015 Basic Research Journal

Proficient physiognomies and herbage of blue panic grass (Panicum Antidotale) at variable clipping intensities

Mazhar Habib
Maaz Maqsood Hashmi
Umar Aftab Abbasi

*Corresponding author email: mazharhabib82@gmail.com

Accepted 21 December, 2014

ABSTRACT

Pakistan is an agriculture based country and a major portion of it falls under rangelands. Presently, these rangelands are desecrated continuously because of high human impact. Contemporary necessity is to restore the forage potential by enhancing the efficacy of forage species in rangelands. A study on Blue panic grass (Panicum antidotale Retz.) was conducted. Stubbles of this grass was grown at NARC, Pakistan. Four clipping stages i.e. D1, D2, D3 and D4 (clipped after 20, 40, 60 and 80days, respectively) were studied. The response variables were morphological characters (plant height, tiller density and herbage yield) of Blue panic grass. With the increase in clipping stage the plant height and number of tillers in the grass increased (P<0.05). Herbage yield significantly differed (P<0.05) at each clipping stage. With advancing plant maturity of the species, its herbage yield increased (P<0.05). Phonologically, with increasing plant maturity, proportion of its plants with vegetative stage declined. This decline of plants with vegetative stage can cause distraction to livestock depending on the species for grazing purposes. It is suggested that two months of clipping stage should be applied on Blue panic grass for getting sustained grass vigor and optimum herbage yield.

Keywords: Blue panic, clipping stage, maturity, morphological characters, herbage yield.

Full access: http://www.basicresearchjournals.org/agric/pdf/Habib%20et%20al.pdf

Impact of pre-treatments and magnetized water application on seeds of Acacia nilotica and Albizia saman

Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review ISSN 2315-6880 Vol. 3(10) pp. 90-92 October 2014

Available online http//www.basicresearchjournals.org

Copyright ©2014 Basic Research Journal

Impact of pre-treatments and magnetized water

application on seeds of Acacia nilotica and Albizia

saman

Maaz Maqsood Hashmi

Kanwal Waqar

Saqib Shakeel Abbasi

Umar Aftab Abbasi

Khizra Gul

*Corresponding author email: maazmh@hotmail.com

Accepted 31 October, 2014

Abstract

In view of the carbon sequestration potential of Albizia saman, commonly known as Trembesi tree. Increase in land cover and carbon trading were key objectives. Seeds of trembesi tree were tested for viability and sustainability for sub-tropical broad leave evergreen forest environment of Pakistan in comparison with Acacia nilotica. The seeds were applied pretreatments to enhance the growing process and testing of the viability in the respective environment. Secondly the effect of magnetic water was also recorded. Both the species were given similar treatment and growing environment. Acid scarification method (conc.H2SO4) and controlled treatments were applied to both the species. The observed results were not much deviated from each other. However, the Acacia nilotica was  evaluated more susceptible than that of the trembesi tree.

Keywords: Albizia saman, Acacia nilotica, seed pretreatments, magnetic water, germination.

Full Text: http://www.basicresearchjournals.org/agric/pdf/Maaz%20et%20al.pdf

The Honey-Water test

The Honey-Water test

Courtesy: Dr. Ashraf Sahibzada (Ex-scientist, National Agricultural Research Centre)

The Honey-Water test: This refers to the test to check the purity of honey. The video explains a simple method to check the quality of the honey. The pure honey will not be easy dissolved in water, while the other will get dissolved easily and much faster. Happy watching!

Template Covering letter for applications

Higher Degree Research Office                                                                   Date

Macquarie University

NSW, Australia

Subject:         Application package for Master Degree Program in Wood Material Science in the School of Forest Sciences at University of  xxxxxxxx, Australia

                                                                                            

Dear Sir/Madam,

It is to state respectfully that I intend to apply for the Master Degree Program in Wood Material Science as a full-time research student at University of XXXXX, Australia. Kindly find the admission application form and other needful documents enclosed, duly attested by the concerned authorities, annexed on the following page.

Thanking you,

Sincerely,

Name (signatures in the above space)

Address:

Phone: 

Mobile: 

Email: 

(Next page)
List of Documents attached;

• a
• b
• c
• d
• e
• f

Template Motivational letter for Wood Material Science- Masters Degree Program

To Whom It May Concern

With this letter I hereby wish to apply and state my motivation for entrance to the Master program in Wood Material Science at the University of Eastern Finland for the 20xx/xx academic year.

I appreciate this opportunity to introduce myself at your University and I perceive it as a perfect opportunity to support my application for the Master program in Wood Material Science by your University. With my educational background and working experience, I strongly believe that I am suitable candidate for the programme. I have chosen this University as my first and only choice because of valuable scholarly resources and well-known reputation of the highly qualified education of the University of Eastern Finland.

Since I was in my graduation, I came to know that Pakistan is a forest deficit country and it is kept on decreasing at a fearful rate. This is leading the country towards the energy as well as climate change issues, especially in the northern areas of Pakistan. I got the chance to study forestry in my bachelors. At the university, I focused more on the forestry and wildlife courses and took some initiatives to work voluntarily in research activities during my studies. Through these activities I indulged myself in the forest research activities. I attended professional trainings and workshops on climate change and biodiversity when I was about to graduate. I took an internship at National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC). There I worked in the Rangeland Research Institute and gained experience in nursery management and seed germination improvement. Later on I utilized my learning and carried out different research work which provided me the chance to get my work published in well reputed journals. My research results were accepted provisionally by the relevant departments.

I had been part of different forest surveys. Most of my experiences are in the sub-tropical broad leave evergreen, moist temperate and dry temperate forests of Pakistan. I am keen to excel my knowledge through learning in the world’s leading forest country. I believe that this opportunity shall provide me the platform to develop strategies and develop some core technique in welfare of climate change and alternate energy sustainability. University of Eastern Finland is the place that offers the most suitable program for me.

After I read carefully the curriculum and the course requirements, I believe that it perfectly matches my research interests and profile. Thanks to the University website, I gained useful information about the University campus and the student life.  Bearing in mind the previous I believe I can fit perfectly achieving ideal academic results. Moreover, I request the scholarship for my accommodation in the Finland. As I understand, this programme is very competitive, attracting highly motivated students, but I am convinced that my good research skills at the University and professional experience give me a strong recommendation for a place at it. Therefore I would be honored if you decide to accept my candidature for Master studies. In the same time I am aware of possible challenges and high investments of effort I will have to place in order to successfully complete this course.

Thanking you in advance for considering my application.

Sincerely,

Name

Assessment of Carbon Stocks and Biodiversity in Karore Forest, Rawalpindi-North, Pakistan

EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Vol. II, Issue 6/ September 2014
Impact Factor: 3.1 (UIF) DRJI Value: 5.9 (B+)

Assessment of Carbon Stocks and Biodiversity in Karore Forest, Rawalpindi-North, Pakistan 

MAAZ MAQSOOD HASHMI
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Pakistan

MAZHAR HABIB
UMAR AFTAB ABBASI
RAJA SHAYAN TARIQ

Abstract:

Pakistan is near to face the threat of carbon emitting countries. Now a day, there is a need to conduct the research studies to dug out the major sources and sinks of this carbon and to conserve these sources to mitigate the constraints this, carbon dioxide, is creating to our environment. Study revolves around the assessment of the present carbon stocks of Subtropical Chir pine forest of Karore, a reserved forest, and a sub division of Rawalpindi- North Forests, under Punjab Forest Department in Pakistan. The study area is a hilly track with village and scattered pattern of land use. Its elevation is 1258 meters. It has a population of around 2000 individuals. The climax species of this area is Chir pine (Pinus roxburgii). The soils of the region are rich in sulfur, causing the forest fires every year during the months of April to June. Major study area contributes to the tree covered portion of forest. Fixed area plot method was defined for the sampling of the forest. At some places, random sampling was performed due to inaccessible portions of forest i.e. steeps, gullies etc. Performed forest inventory was used to draw the volume tables of the forest. The biomass of the sampled trees was estimated using the tree volume and specific gravity of the wood. Biomass estimation was performed and carbon index was calculated. Study also comprised the biodiversity survey of the region. Identification of under storey vegetation, herbarium sheets, biomass calculation and palatability of the species were observed. Carissa spinarum was evaluated in the palatable vegetation of the area. Moreover, study area depicted the on-timber forest product (NTFP) values with the wild presence of fruit trees in the locality. The output of the study showed that with the passage of time the carbon sink has now been shifting towards the carbon source and it is a dilemma for the coming decade.

Full access: http://euacademic.org/UploadArticle/897.pdf

Assessment of Highest Germination Rate of Native Legume Tree Species

EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Vol. II, Issue 4/ July 2014
 Impact Factor: 3.1 (UIF) DRJI Value: 5.9 (B+)

Assessment of Highest Germination Rate of Native Legume Tree Species

MAAZ MAQSOOD HASHMI KANWAL WAQAR SAQIB SHAKEEL ABBASSI

National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC) Pakistan

Abstract:
Assessment of Highest Germination Rate of Native Legume Tree SpeciesKeeping in view the present condition of deforestation and climate change in Pothwar, the study was conducted to evaluate fastest germinating seeds. This area receives a rainfall of 350-500 mm, annually. The temperature range of this locality ranges from 4o to 25o in winter, while in summer it rises to a range of 15o to 40o . The aim of the study focused on the germinating tree out of Acacia nilotica, Acacia modesta, Albizia lebbeck and Dalbergia sissoo, the species which gave maximum germinations is Acacia nilotica, followed by this Acacia modesta and Albizia lebbeck also showed good response to both controlled and pretreatment of seeds. Dalbergia sissoo seeds showed a slow germinating response as compared to the other three species. Key words: Seed germination improvement, legume tree species, Pothwar.

Full access: Seed germination improvement of Native legumes

Nutritional Evaluation of Grewia optiva and Grewia populifolia in Different Seasons and Sites of Chakwal District in Pakistan

ISSN 2286-4822
www.euacademic.org
EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Vol. II, Issue 4/ July 2014
Impact Factor: 3.1 (UIF)
DRJI Value: 5.9 (B+)
Nutritional Evaluation of Grewia optiva and Grewia populifolia in Different Seasons and Sites of Chakwal District in Pakistan
MAAZ MAQSOOD HASHMI
KANWAL WAQAR
National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC)
Islamabad
Pakistan

Follow the link for viewing the publication for free:
http://euacademic.org/UploadArticle/737.pdf

Rangelands of Punjab

An Overview of Rangelands of Punjab, Pakistan

by

Dr. Muhammad Arshad

Rangelands in the Punjab spread over from Temperate in the North to Mediterranean ranges in the western mountains of Suleiman Range and arid and semi-arid desert ranges of Cholistan (Fig. 1).

Although Khan and Mohammad, (1987), reported that in Pakistan rangelands occupy about 65 percent of the total land area but a decrease in the area has also been reported which is now about 51 percent. Ashraf and Akbar (1989) reported that it may be more extensive (60%). About 18 percent of the country’s rangelands are contained in the Punjab, this was found to cover 8.2 million ha or 40 percent (Fig. 2) of the area of the province (Mohammad, 1989).

Extreme climatic variations are the result of an extreme range in elevation and occurrence of summer monsoon rains. The summers are extremely hot while winters are mildly cold to very cold. Precipitation varies from 100 mm in the southern deserts to more than 1500 mm in the Northern Mountains. The central and southern plains of the province consist of fertile soils but annual rainfall is low averaging less than 250 mm. Northern snow-covered mountains of the Himalayas, Hindu Kash and Karakorum ranges are the main source of runoff water for the Indus River and its tributaries. As a result, water from the Indus and its tributaries is used to develop the canal irrigation system in Punjab for food and fiber production.

Although the high potential rangelands are located in the Northern regions of the province, but extensive semi-desert or desert ranges in the province of the Punjab are also another biggest resource which needs to be harnessed. Most of the deserts in the province are man-made and have resulted from a long history of over grazing, mismanagement and vegetation deterioration. As a result of continued un-scientific use of rangelands, the current trend of retrogression is still progressing (Quraishi et. al 1993; Younas, 1997).

Grassland Types of Punjab

In broad general terms there are four major grassland types in Punjab on the basis of their species composition (Johnston & Hussain, 1963 and Norman, 1968) which are as under:

1. Dicanthium- Cenchrus-Elionurus (associated with tropical thorn forests)

This grass type is associated with the Tropical thorn Forest and is distributed throughout the alluvial basin of the river Indus complex and extends from K.P.K Province to Punjab and Sindh. It is the characteristic

Fig. 1: Land cover map showing rangeland Zones of Punjab.

(Source: Courtesy of GIS Lab, PFI, Peshawar)

of plains and low eroded hills. The precipitation mostly received during summer months and varies from more than 500 mm in the north to less than 125 mm in the south and east. The associated species are:

Dicanthium annulatus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Elionurus hirsutus, Eleusine flagellifera, Cynodon dactylon, Sporoblus pallidus and

Panicum antidotale.

2. Chrysopogon (in the tropical thorn forests)

A number of forest types have been associated with this type including the Thorn Forest at low elevations bordering the Indus Basin, the subtropical dry evergreen forest between 750 to 2000 meters, the dry temperate forest at the high elevations and the Artemisia steppe that starts at about 1200 meters. The region is characteristic of dry low potential valleys of the Himalayas. The precipitation mostly received during summer months and varies from more than 500 mm in the north to less than 175 mm in the south. The associated species are:

Chrysopogon aucheri,Stipa szovitsiana, Stipa linearis, Eusoapogon persicus, and Oryzopsis equiglumis and Bromus tectorum.

3. Themeda-Arundinella (in the hilly northern areas),

It has been found in the northern mountains at an elevation of 500 to 2500 meters. The principal grass species are associated Themeda anathera, Arundinella spp.,Eulaliopsis bintas, Chrysopogon spp., Dimeria spp., Bothriochloa spp., Heteropgon contortus, and Pennisetum orientale.

4. Saccharum (on river and nullah and alluvial floodplains)

Saccharum spp. are characteristics of young alluvial soils along with the river courses. The vegetation is influenced by frequent erosion and deposition of land as a result of shifting water courses of Indus river complex. The pioneer association was found to consistTamarix dioca, T.troupii, and Saccharum spontaneum, Cynodon dactylon and Saccharum arundinaecum were characteristics of later successional stage.

Associated with these grasslands in the Punjab are five main forest types (Hussain, Chaudhry & Khan, 1999). Much of the original forest is in a degraded condition due to over exploitation and has been converted into scrub forest,the associated grasslands.

The rangelands of Punjab consists of four zones, that is the Pothwar Plateau, Thal Desert, Suleiman mountain piedmont area (Dera Ghazi Khan Tract or Pachad Tract) and Cholistan Desert. The rangelands under the administration of the Punjab Forest Department are three million ha, which is 36% of the total area of rangelands of Punjab (Fig: 3).

Table 7.Region wise distribution of Rangelands in Punjab

                                    Million (ha)             

S.No	Rangelands Zones	Public Sector Rangelands*	Total area**(Public +Private)Rangelands
1	Pothwar Scrub rangelands*	0.324	1.68
2	Thal Desert rangelands	0.063	2.50
3	D.G.Khan rangelands	0.028	1.50
4	Cholistan Desert rangelands	2.592	2.60
	Total:-	3.009	8.28

(Source :*Government of Punjab, 1974. **Mohammad, 1989).

Fig2: Region /Zone wise distribution of total area of rangelands in Punjab

Fig. 3:Public Sector Rangelands of Punjab

(Source: Punjab Forest Department)

2.1 POTHWAR SCRUB RANGELANDS

2.1.1 Location

The Pothwar tract is located in the North of Punjab and lies between 32⁰-30’ to 34⁰-0’ North latitude and 72⁰-74⁰ East longitude consisting of 1.5 mha falling in the districts of Attock, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Jehlum, Chakwal and Gujrat, Mianwali and Khushab (Salt Range). It lies between rivers Jehlum and Indus.

2.1.2 Geology and Soil

The Pothwar tract is sub-mountainous in character altitude varies from 300 to 1500 meters. Geomorphologically, the plateau can be classified into mountains; hillocks, valleys, ravines, streams, plains, weathered rocks, piedmont plains, loess plains and river plains. The rock formation is composed of tertiary sandstones and alluvial deposits. The sandstones apparently belong to the Sirmur and Siwalik series of the Sub-Himalayan system. The pebble ridges, described as alluvial deposits are a peculiar feature. Large isolated boulders in many places indicate a glacial epoch in the Pothwar plains. The Pothwar plains were formed during the quaternary period and are composed of alluvium and groral caps (Soil Survey of Pakistan, 1978).

The soils of the areas have developed from a wide range of parent material. While the agriculture soils have developed in wind and water transported materials consisting of loess, piedmont alluvial and river alluvium deposits, mountains out wash and recent stream valley deposits. Some are derived from shale and sandstone. The older soils are non-calcareous whereas the relatively younger components are calcareous. Ecologically, it is located in the sub-tropical, semiarid to sub humid zone(Soil Survey of Pakistan, 1978).

2.1.3  Climate

The climate is sub-tropical continental low lands, sub humid Pothwar Plateau (Ahmed,1951) with a mean annual precipitation of 940 mm, most of which falls  in the monsoon season during the months of July and August. The precipitation is erratic during two seasons which occurs from mid of June to mid of September and December to March. The summer monsoon rains are usually accompanied by the thunder storms and occur as a heavy downpour resulting in considerable runoff. Most of the annual precipitation in the semi-arid portion occurs during June to September period. In the North and East about 70 percent occurs in summer. The winter rains occur as gentle showers of long duration and are more effective for soil and moisture replenishment than the summer rains. The tract is subject to heavy soil erosion and gully formation due to excessive land use and subsequent removal of vegetative cover.

January is the coldest month (mean minimum temperature 0.6C⁰) while June is the hottest month (mean maximum temperature 45C⁰). Beg et.al (1985) reported that the mean annual precipitation ranges between 650 to 1000 mm and the mean annual temperature ranges between 18-24 C⁰). Highest relative humidity of 83 % and 76% was recorded in the morning in the coldest months of December & January and 51% and 45% in the evening.

2.1.4.   Extent of Rangelands.

Table 8. Detail of the Public Ranges falling in various districts of Pothwar.

Name of Forest	District	Area in ha
Rasool Reserved Forest.	Mandi Baha-ud-Din	334.8178
Pabbi Reserved Forest.	Gujrat	15403.64
Phadial Reserved Forest.	Jhelum	4433.198
Ara Reserved Forest.	Chakwal	4325.911
Noorpur Reserved Forest.	Chakwal	1126.316
Mari Reserved Forest.	Chakwal	3055.87
Behiot Reserved Forest.	Khushab	3913.36
Pail Reserved Forest.	Khushab	1819.838
Gulial Reserved Forest.	Attock	6881.781
TOTAL		41294.74

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.1.5.   Ecology and Vegetation

The vegetation of the tract is a dry deciduous scrub. Among the tree species Phulai (Acacia modesta) is found all over the tract growing naturally. Phulai is browzed by goats and camels. Kao (Olea cuspidata) is found in major part of the tract except in Pabbi hills and some western low lying areas of Attock district and hotter aspects of Jhelum. Kao is a very useful species. Besides providing wood for implements, its leaves are used as fodder. Lopping of kao is therefore a common practice all over the tract. The shrubs, grasses and forbs found in the tract are given below

The predominant tree species, shrubs, grasses and forbs are as under:

1. Kao (Olea cuspidata), Phulai (Acacia modesta),Kikar (Acacia nilotica), Mesquite (Prosopis Juliflora), Ber (Zizyphus Jujuba), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Kangar (Pistacia integrima), Iple iple (Leucaena leucocephala),
2. Pataki (Gymnosporia royliana), Mallah (Zizyphus nummularia), Snatha (Dodonea viscosa), Gunghair (Monotheca buxifolia) Garanda (Carrisa spinarum), Bahekar (Adhatoda vasica), Shamshad (Buxus papilosa)
3. Pharion (Digitaria bicornis), Palwan (Brothriochloa pertusa), Khar (Chrysopogon aucheri), Chimber (Eleusine flagellifera), Dhaman (Cenchrus ciliaris) Sariala  (Heteropogon contotrus), Dab(Desmostachya bipinnata), Babbar (Eragrostis superba), Khawi(cymbopogon Jawarancusa), Lumb (Aristida adscencionis), Gorkha (Elionurus hirsutus)Dilla (Cyperus eleusinoides)Lumber, (Cenchrus biflorus), Tilla/Khar (Chrysopogon ciliaris), Khabbal (Cynodon dactylon), Palwan  (Dichanthium annulatum) Madhana , (Dactyloctenium scindicum) Gharam (Panicum antidotale).
4. Bathu (Chenopodium album), Itsit (Behavior diffusa), Mako (Solonum nigrum).

The plant density on the whole, is very variable. It is poor on southern western slopes being dry & hot, whereas on the northern slopes, the density is good. The top soil has been practically washed away. Erosion has reached a very advanced stage in some parts and bare infertile rocks have been exposed which cannot support any type of vegetation.

2.1.6.   Range condition and classes

Range condition is the present state of vegetation of a range site in relation to the climax plant community for that site. It is a measure of the status of current vegetation in relation to the climax vegetation of that area. In other words, it is the measure of the range health. Ecologically, the climax composition is considered as the best vegetation that the nature can produce for a given area. If a given range is in excellent or good condition, then range managers try to maintain the range in a stable condition. However, if range condition is poor or bad, the range managers have to do something to improve the range health. The most popular approach to determine range condition involves measurement of range condition of a given site in degrees of departure from climax. Excellent or good range condition represents climax and poor range condition represents deviation from climax. Following ratings are generally used to determine range condition (Dyksterhuis, 1958).

Condition Class	Percent of present composition that is climax for the site.
Excellent	76-100
Good	51-75
Fair	26-50
Poor	0-25

S.No	Botanical Name	English Name	Common Name	DM%	CP %	CF %	NDF%	ADF%	Lignin%	EE%	Ash%	Gross Energy(MJ/Kg DM)	Forage (DM/ha)
1	Lasiurus scindicus	Sewan  grass	Gorkha grass	32.2	6.1	41	75.9	47.5	7	2.3	8.4	18.4	3.4
2	Cenchrus ciliaris	Buffel grass	Dhaman	30.1	7.1	42.2	75.1	46.6	6.8	2.1	9.1	18.3	4.8-9.1
3	Cynodon dactylon	Bermuda grass	Khabbal	32.9	9.7	31.4	66.7	36.8	4.7	1.7	9.7	17.9	5-15
4	Heteropogon contortus	Spear  grass	Sariala	39.2	5	37	72.1	43.1	6.1	1.4.	1.88	17.9	05-8.7
5	Bothriochloa pertusa	Indian bluegrass	Palwan	42.9	5	33.1	68.4	38.7	5.1	1.9	11.6	17.4	Upto 15
6	Chloris gayana	Rhodes grass	-	25	8.9	37.4	72.4	43.5	6.1	2.2	8.9	18.3	11.5-17.2
7	Digitaria decumbens	Digit grass	-	27.1	8.1	36.3	71.4	42.3	5.9	2.2	11	17.8	Upto 15
8	Panicum antidotale	Blue panic	Gharam	28.6	10.2	36.6	73.7	42.5	5.9	1.6	9.8	18.1	2.5-6

Table 9: Nutritive value of common range grasses

Range condition can also be measured by using “site potential” approach (Humphrey,1949). In this approach, the current condition or primary production status of a given range is related to the potential production capacity of that range for a particular use. This approach has the flexibility for judging the range condition for a specified use, for example a site can be rated as excellent for wildlife habitat but poor or fair for livestock grazing.

The primary purpose of determining range condition is to provide an approximate measure of changes that have taken place in the plant cover and thereby provide a basis for predicting the nature and direction of plant community changes to be expected from management and treatment measures.

The range condition of an area within a range site is determined by comparing present vegetation with the climax plant community. To facilitate this process components of the vegetation are segregated according to their response to the kind of grazing use on specific range sites. These component categories are decreaser, increaser and invader plants. 

Little work has been done to determine the range condition which involves measurement in degrees of departure from climax vegetation in Pothwar tract and other desert rangeland of Punjab. However, the forage production potential has been estimated by determining forage production over time. The forage production can be co-related in determination of range condition classes. The forage production was estimated in Pothwar tract as 4350 Kg/ha on the high potential sites protected for 2 years, which is equivalent to 2 ha per animal unit/ annum. Similar estimates have been made on moderate and depleted sites as 7 and 56 ha per animal unit per annum respectively (Qurashi, 1993).

Raza and Ahmed (1990) estimated the qualitative and quantitative parameters of environmentally sound rangeland vegetation of Pindigheb, area of Attock district where two ecological zones were established were based on climate and two types of physiographic soils. Four plant communities extracted for each ecological unit were integrated with climate and two types of physiographic and finally delineated into vegetation and land use map showing four range ecological units. Vegetation analysis in protected forest and unprotected open grazing areas showed considerable vegetation degradation and ecological destruction for low ground cover, density and frequency of major unprotected. Analysis of variance of quantitative forage production of dry matter between protected forest and unprotected open grazing areas of each ecological zone showed highly significant differences. The unprotected over grazed areas showed about 2.5-7.0 times decline in forage production. The unprotected over grazed areas have 147% and 638% development potential in each ecological zone for carrying capacity in animal units per hectare per year, if protected from open grazing and improved by system of grazing management.(Raza & Ahmad, 1990).

2.1.7.   Trend in range condition

Range condition classifies the present vegetation of a range site in relation to the potential for that site. Knowing the condition, however, does not indicate whether the range is improving or deteriorating. Trend is the direction of change in range condition (SRM, 1974). The rating includes‘ upward’,‘ downward’ or ‘stable’. Ecologically, upward trend corresponds to successional stages toward climax and downward trend corresponds to retrogression or away from climax. The most important technique to measure range trend is to use enclosures. Enclosure separates climatic effects from this caused by grazing. For periodic monitoring of ecological changes taking place in soil improvement and natural habits of fauna and flora, exclosures are erected in range ecological zones. Each exclosure over an area of 50 x 100 m. Three permanent transects are usually laid out inside the fence and 3 transects of the same length are marked outside the exclosure. Transects are the beginning point marked with an aluminum cap set in a concrete pier at about 4 inches above the soil surface or using wooden pegs. In hilly areas, transects are laid out in north-south direction. The location of the marker and the transect are noted on base maps. All trees located within two meters of the transect are identified by species and the stem diameter at one meter height, crown diameter and height are estimated for each tree. An estimate of vegetation condition and trend are made for the immediate area of the transect. Soil surface is described with soil erosion characteristic, condition and trend noted. The following are among the more important characteristics of both vegetation and soil that indicate apparent trend in range condition.

Abundance of seedlings and young plants, plant residue, composition changes, plant vigor, condition of the soil surface. However, the relative importance of the several factors mention above will vary with difference in vegetation, soils, and climate.

Haider et.al (2011) studied the effect of grazing systems on forage production in rangelands of Pabbi Hills, Kharian, Range Management Division, Chakwal. The study period was 4 years i.e from 2000-2001 to 2003-2004.They reported that in open grazing system, the dry forage yield had a downward trend and it declined from 550 Kg/ha in 2000-2001 to 220 Kg/ha in 2003-04. They recommended 6-month seasonal deferred grazing to be practiced in this region (Fig.4).

2.1.8.Range improvement practices.

            Keeping in view the spirit and the recommendations contained in the federal document that is Rangelands of Pakistan, a study, National Range Management Committee, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad-1973 in 1974 a feasibility survey report (PC.II document) for management of rangelands of Punjab for pre-investment purposes was produced. The report looked in detail at the characteristics of the Pothwar, Thal, Cholistan and D.G. Khan tracts and made specific recommendations for improvement and management operations for each zone. The recommendations in this document along with those in the federal document have been implemented to a greater extent and have become the principle documents that have guided in undertaking range management operations through various, government funded and donor assisted range improvement operations.

            Therefore following the recommendations of the Feasibility Survey Report, range improvement activities in Punjab were started during 1974 under a development project captioned “Range Management in the Punjab Pothwar Tract-Phase-I” which was followed by phase two and other development projects. A brief of range interventions made under different development projects from the year 1974-75 to 2011-12 are given in Table10.

Fig: 4. Decline in forage production over four years of study in

            rangelands of Pubbi Hills.

Table 10.Details of rangeland development intervention in Pothwar(1974-75 to 2011-12)

S.No.	Development works	Unit	Dev.	Non-Dev.	Total
1	Seeding of native grasses	Ha	8,498	2872	11370
2	Afforestation works	Ha	19335	2860	22195
3	Grass tuft planting	Ha	472	-	472
4	Development of watering points.	No.	252	5	257
5	Construction of pasture roads.	Km	97	-	97
6	Soil conservation works	Ha	1781		1781
7	Raising of grass seed nursery	Ha	6	4	10

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.1.9. Impact of range improvement practices

Although, it has been estimated that against the productive potential of 4 tons per ha the Pothwar rangelands, at present are only producing 1.5 tons/ha which is only one third of its productive potential (Mohammad, 1989). Various studies have revealed that it could be easily increased through scientific management. Chaudhry et.al (2010) determined the forage production on both the treated/ reseeded and untreated areas of Mari Reserve Forest of Pothwar tract at the end of the growing season during October, 2007. The reseeded area produced about 16 times (7733 kg/ha) more forage than the untreated area (491 kg/ha). The carrying capacity of the range based on dry biomass of grasses, herbs was found to be 0.07 and 1.18 Animal Units per ha per year in untreated and treated areas, respectively or in other words, the range having an area of 3055 ha can support 3605 AU per year if seeded, otherwise it will support only 214 AU per year. These results indicated that reseeding may be an important range improvement practice for the rehabilitation of the degraded rangelands of Pothwar.

Due to yearlong and unscientific grazing and with livestock more than the carrying capacity of the range, the seeded stands are over grazed easily resultantly there is no impact of range development. Therefore, it is important that more emphasis be given to the scientific management of the seeded stands for sustainable development.

2.2 DESERT RANGELANDS OF THAL

2.2.1.   Location

The tract is bound by the piedmont of the Salt Range in the north, the Indus River flood plains in the West and Jhelum and Chenab River flood plains in the east. About 2.6 mha of arid and semi-arid areas of Thal range, receiving 150 to 200 mm annual precipitation is located at an altitude of 200 m and lies between 31- 33⁰ N latitude and 71.07⁰E. It comprises of larger parts of districts of Mianwali, Bhakkar, Layyah, Muzaffargarh and some parts of the districts of Khushab, Sargodha and Jhang which are still out of the command of canal irrigation system. 

2.2.2. Geology and Soil

The soil is moderately calcareous; alkaline clay loam and alluvial with sandy texture. Sandis fine brown whereas sand dunes cover 50 to 60 percent of the area. The range area can be divided into four range sites viz:  Sand dunes Slope and foots of sand dunes, Flat areas and Kankor.

According to soil survey of Pakistan (SSP, 1968) the geomorphology of the areas consists of sand ridges, abandoned channels and flood plans. Over the major part of the Thal desert, the alluvium has been blown into sand ridges and hollows or valleys known as patties in the local dialect. The soils of ridges are very deep, structure less, fine soils of various degrees of calcareousness and colour gradations. All the sand ridges soils are highly drained and having pH value of 8.4. Fine soil material from ridges has been drained into hollows and valleys and where allowed to settle down, has made very deep, moderately calcareous and poor structured soil.

The soils of valleys are mostly well drained with an average pH of about 8.4. Whereas on the other hand, the soils of the abandoned channels are water reworked sediment material with a wide textural range (loamy sands to fine silty clays) usually have kankor, zone and are moderate lycalcareous with a pH ranging from 8.3 to 8.8. Soils of sub recent flood plains are moderately deep to dark, grayish-brown, silty clay loams and silty clays with weak to moderate structures 3 and weak lime profile but no kankor zone. In southern areas, reduced annual flooding and a high water table have resulted in alkalinization. The soils are alluvial with sandy textured sand dunes covering 50 to 60 percent of the area.

2.2.3. Climate

The north eastern part of the range area receives more rainfall than southern part. (GOP, 1974). Strong winds are very common which cause severe soil erosion. The temperature varies between 0^oC to 44^o C in winter and summer months of the year. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in the tract are about 44⁰ C and less than 0⁰C respectively. The average annual precipitation varies from 385 mm in the north-east to 170 mm in the south. Approximately three-fourth of annual rainfall is received during monsoon.

2.2.4.   Extent of Rangeland.

Table.11 Details of the Public Rangeland falling in Thal Tract.
Range Lands	Area (ha)
Rakh dagar Kotli	3267.206
Rakh Baba Hunda Lal	4138.866
Rakh Chikkan	2772.874
Rakh Gohar Wala	9814.575
Rakh Khew Yara	6727.53
Rakh chubara	5032.794
Rakh chubara	6852.632
Rakh Khere Wala	12483.4
Rakh Shergarh	12812.55
Total:-	63,902.43

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.2.5. Ecology and Vegetation

Ecologically, the range area is a part of tropical and subtropical sandy plains and is considered one of the prominent rangeland of southern Punjab which covers an area of 2.5 million ha. (Muhammad, 1989; Quraishi et al. 2006).The predominant tree species, shurbs, grasses are as under:

a)      Jand (Prosopis cineraria), Frash (Tamarix aphylla), Wan (Salvadora oleoides), Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), Ber (Zizyphus jujuba)

b)     Kikri (Acacia jacquemontii), Karir (Capparis aphylla), Phog (Calligonum polygonoides)

c)      The indigenous grasses like Dhaman (Cenchrus cilliaris), Khabbal (Cynodon dactylon), Khawai (Cymbopogon jwarancsa), Chhimber (Eleusine flagellifera),             Malai (Panicum antidotale), Lumb (Aristida depressa), Gorkha (Elionurus hirsutus)Dicanthium annulatum,sorghum halepense,Haloxylon recurvum. (Khan, 1966; GOP, 1974, Muhammad 1989, Quraishi et al. 1993).     

2.2.6    Range condition and trend.

Range condition and trend has been discussed in detail in the preceding chapter however, the forage production and its variation over time has been recorded during various studies. Chaudhry et al (2000) reported forage production of reseeded areas of Rakh Dagar Kotli of Range Management Division Bhakkar to be 581 Kg per hectare and reported heavy grazing pressure which resulted in downward trend of the range condition. Chaudhry et el. (2012) conducted survey to assess the prospects of rangeland development in Thal tract and found that 94‑100 % of respondents of all categories grazed their livestock in stateowned rangelands of the Thal tract, in spite of having low carrying capacity. Thetract met 59% of feed requirement of their livestock. Formulation of community organization is pre-requisite for development of the rangelands of the area.

2.2.7    Range improvement practices

The details of rangeland development interventions made from the year, 1974-75 to 2011-12 are as under:-

Table:12. Detail of development interventionsin Thal Tract.
S.No.	Development Works	Unit	Develop-ment	Non-Dev	Total
1	Seeding of native grasses	ha	21,013	678	21691
2	Afforestation works	ha	711.05	147	858.05
3	Grass tuft planting	No.	3,33,000	-	3,33,000
4	Construction of pasture roads.	Km	200	-	200
5	Installation of hand pumps	No.	382	-	382
6	Installation of tube well	No.	8	3	11
7	Sand dunes planting.	ha	1564	9.6	1573.6
8	Raising of grass seed nursery	ha	90	-	90

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.2.8 Impact of range improvement practices.

Range improvement works were initiated in Thal tract immediately after the implementation of Maslakh range improvement project. Thal is the second highest potential rangeland, in Punjab. Its soil is very fertile and the sub soil water is fit for irrigation purposes. The range improvement practices have significant impact on the pastoral economy of area as it increases the forage quality and quantity, which ultimately increase in animal production, increase water yields on watershed and reducing conflicts between multiple uses of range resources. However, due to decades of over grazing and non-practicing of any specialized grazing system the rangelands have deteriorated in condition and the trend has gone downward. Furthermore, these are the marginal lands and the local people prefer to cultivate Gram crop rather than to go for the range management on the private rangelands, which further accelerates the soil erosion and cause environmental pollution.

2.3       RANGELANDS OF DERA GHAZI KHAN

2.3.1.   Location

Dera Ghazi Khan tract is located between latitude 28⁰.30’ to 31⁰.15’, in the North and longitude 69⁰.30’ to 70⁰.75’ in the East. The tract lies in the Punjab Province which borders simultaneously with NWFP in the North, Indus River in the East, Sindh towards the South and Baluchistan in the West. The rangelands of Dera Ghazi Khan tract consisting of an area of 0.5 mha lie between the Sulaiman Range and the Indus River. Its average slope is gentle but few sand dunes are also found.

2.3.2.   Geology and Soil

Soils of rangelands are divided into two sub-regions. The piedmont plains locally called “pachad” are formed in the local alluvium derived from adjoining mountains. The topography of the area is undulating, with deep, well drained, calcareous, medium-textured and low inorganic matter(Mohammad, 1984). The river plains locally known as “belas” are formed in the mixed alluvium originated from the Himalayas. These are sandy clay calcareous and low in organic matter. 

2.3.3    Climate.

The general climatic regime of D.G.Khan tract is typical of very arid sub mountainous sub-tropical continental. Ecologically, it is tropical plain (non-sandy). Climate is broadly characterized by cold winters and very hot summers. Winter temperature occasionally reach zero level, especially in January and February, due to westerly cold winds. June and July are the hottest months with an average maximum temperature of 42⁰C. Average annual precipitation varies from 75 to 162 mm, most of the rainfall storms that move from high mountains (1540-3400m) lose their moisture before reaching range areas which are situated relatively at lower altitude (150 m). Annual rainfall at Dera Ghazi Khan, Taunsa, Fort Munro, Jampur and Rajanpur has been recorded as 132, 163, 202, 98 and 100 mm respectively(Mohammad, 1989).

2.3.4    Extent of Rangeland

Total area under the control Punjab Forest department was 28,217 ha which comprised 12 Rakhs  located in D. G. Khan and Taunsa Tehsils. Out of this area 404 ha of Rakh Choti Dalana were transferred to the Civil Aviation Authority for the construction of Airport, 324 ha were transferred to Education Department for the construction of campus, Agriculture University, An area of 1137 ha of Rakh Rindwala, Kaluwala and Thatha Jhoke Bodo was further transferred to D. G. Khan Forest Division for conversion of this native vegetation into irrigated plantation as it came under the command of Chashma Right Bank Canal.

Table 13. Rangelands of Dera Ghazi Khan

Rangeland	Area (ha)
Rakh Choti Dalan	7315.385
Rakh Khitran Wala	727.1255
Rakh Rind Wala	408.9069
Rakh Kalu Wala	242.1053
Rakh Rurkali	814.9798
Rakh Berind	913.3603
Rakh Hamel wali	376.9231
Rakh chatta Maijata	486.6397
Rakh Thatta Jhoke Bodo	1004.049
Total:	28,217.41

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.3.5.   Ecology and Vegetation

Rangelands which are recently formed or the young soils are colonized by Saccharum spontaneum and Tamarix dioica along the river Indus. These are replaced by Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria. Wan (Salvadora oleoides) is probably the climax species of that region. The predominant trees, grasses are forbs are as under:

a).        Jand(Prosopis cineraria), Ber (Zizyphus jujuba), Wan (Salvadora oleoides), Kikar (Acacia nilotica), Kikari (Acacia jacquemontii), Phulai (Acacia modesta), Acacia Senegal, Alhaji camelorum, Calligonum polygonoides, Callotropis procera, Capparis decidua,  Kahjoor (Phoenix dactylifera),Lahora (Tecoma undulate),Malah (Zizyphus mauritiana.)

b).        Dhaman (Cenchrus cilliaris), Khabbal (Cynodon dactylon), Kahi (Saccharum spontaneum),             Chhimber (Eleusine flagellifera),       Malai (Panicum antidotale), Lumb (Aristida depressa), Gorkha (Elionurus hirsutus), Cenchrus setigerus, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Demostachya bipinnata, Haloxylon recurvum, Haloxylon salicornium, Kochia indica, Leptadenia pyrotechnica,Peganum hermala,Saccharum munja,Salsola foetida, Withania coagulans.

2.3.6.   Range Condition and Trend.

The  information concerning forage availability, quality, quantity and palatability of range plants is available regarding D.G. Khan tract is limited. The forbs and secondary grasses usually increase as primary grasses decrease. Total cover may change very little, and occasionally may increase due to the invasion of non-palatable plants. Deterioration of the rangelands has been associated with irregular grazing by nomadic and local livestock and illicit cutting of shrubs for fuel and fodder. Most of the rangelands are in poor condition. Estimated dry matter yields were 3 to 4 t/ha from Lasiurus sindicus seeded stands at Rakh Choti Dalana and only about 400-500 kg/ha from non-seeded areas (Mohammad, 1989).

Khan et.al (1999) studied the effect of artificial reseeding on the forage production of wild rangelands of Thatha Leghari of Dera Ghazi Khan and reported that the reseeded area produced 10 times (4000 kg/ha) more forage than the native range (425 kg/ha).Similarly in another study, Chaudhry (2009) determined the carrying capacity of different rangelands (Rakhs) of Dera Ghazi Khan which is given in the Table. 14. below:

Table 14: Carrying capacity of rangelands of D.G.Khan.

Rakh/Range	Area in ha.	Year of Seeding	Carrying capacity (ha/AU/Yr)
			Reseeded Areas		Un-seeded Areas
			Open for Grazing	Close for Grazing
Choti Dalana	7548.58	2006-07 2005-06	- -	1.23 1.19	10.31 -
Shadan lund	4424.29	2006-07 2005-06	- 5.54	1.77 -	13.36 -
Bela vidor	5255.46	2006-07	-	1.51	12.14
Rakh Barind	912.95	2006-07 2005-06	- 3.64	1.44 -	12.95 -
Rakh Kathranwalla	727.12	2006-07 2005-06	- 2.06	0.89 -	13.76 -

(Source: Chaudhry, A.A. 2009)

The carrying capacity in un-reseeded areas ranged from 10.31 to 13.76 ha/AU/Yr. Whereas the carrying capacity increased significantly in reseeded areas and it was 0.89- 1.77 ha/AU/Yr in closed areas and 2.06-5.54 ha/AU/Yr in the open areas (Fig.6). This study indicated forage production equivalent to 238Kg/ha. Therefore, it has been revealed from these two studies that, the rangelands in Dera Ghazi Khan had a downward trend as forage production decreased from 425Kg/ha in 1999 to 238 Kg/ha in 2009 in the open areas (Fig: 5).

Fig: 5. Decrease in carrying capacity (herbage production) of rangelands

of D. G. Khan

Fig: 6. Area required per Animal Unit (AU) per year in different Ranges of D. G. Khan

2.3.7    Range improvement practices

The details of rangeland development interventions made from the year 1974-75 to 2011-12 are given as under:-

Table 15. Detail of rangeland development interventions                  in D.G.Khan ( 1974-75 to 2011-12)

S.No	Development Works	Unit	Devel-pment	Non-Dev.	Total
1	Reseeding of grasses	ha	9,130	122	9,252
2	Making of water spreading dykes	No	9550	160	9710
3	Construction of water ponds	No	141	-	141
4	Construction of Pasture roads	Km	300	-	300
5	Raising of potted plants	No	2,18,000	2,62,600	4,80,600
6	Raising of bed nursery	ha	-	2	2
7	Raising of grass seed nursery	ha	14	-	14
8	Installation of tube wells	No	3	-	3
9	Installation of hand pumps	No	3	-	3
10	Dry Afforestation	ha	23624	-	23624
11	Planting around tobas	No	2,000	2500	4,500

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)

2.3.8    Impact of range improvement practices

The first attempt for the scientific management of rangelands in Dera Ghazi Khan was made in 1960. The efforts failed to yield good results, and the area, being extremely arid, was declared unsuitable for range Improvement (GOP 1970).

Later on, after creation of range management circle in Punjab, range improvement projects were launched which gave encouraging results. The herbage production was increased upto 10 times. In the year 1982, an independent range management division was created with its Headquarter at D.G.Khan and scientific range management was started on regular basis. Since, these range lands are under sever grazing pressure particularly from the nomadic graziers of Balochistan and there is no impact of range improvement practices in ecosystem rehabilitation as well as uplift of the socio-economic conditions of the local people.

2.4  CHOLISTAN DESERT RANGELANDS

2.4.1    Location

The Cholistan desert is located in southern Punjab extending through the Nara and Thar deserts of Sindh between latitudes 27^o 42′and 29^o 45′North and longitudes 69^o 52′and 75^o 24′East covering about 2.6 million ha. It has length of 480 Km and width varies from 32 to 192 km (Khan, 1987). Based on topography, parent material, soil and vegetation, the Cholistan Desert can be divided into two geomorphic regions; the northern region is called Lesser Cholistan bordering canal irrigated areas covering about 7,770 km²and the southern region is called Greater Cholistan and covers about 18,130 km².

The old Hakra riverbed (dried about 600 years ago) is the dividing line between the two regions. Lesser Cholistan comprises the desert margin and include sall the area north of the Hakra, while Greater Cholistan is essentially the area south of the old Hakra riverbed. The northern part of Lesser Cholistan includes an irrigation zone of 280,000 ha served by a canal network, where only 130,000 ha are commendable but only a small part is actually irrigated.

It is spread over the district of Bahawalpur, Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalnagar and covers two-third area of Bahawalpur Civil Division.

2.4.2    Geology and Soil.

The soil survey of Cholistan was conducted by the Soil Survey of Pakistan in 1974. The soils of the tract are saline, alkaline and gypsiferous composed of granites, schists, gneiss, and slates. The area consists of shifting sand dunes. The dunes reach heights of about 100 m in grater Cholistan.

Four major land forms recognized by Baig et.al (1980) includes sub-recent river plains, the first sandy terrace above the Hakra River (late pleistocene), the second sandy terrace above the Hakra River plain (late pleistocene) and the third sandy terrace above the Hakra River Plain (middle Pleistocene).

2.4.3    Climate.

The Climate of Cholistan is a hyper hot arid sandy desert type. Ecologically, it is tropical arid sandy desert. The area is subject to wind erosion. Precipitation is erratic and ranges from 100 to 200 mm. Mean minimum and maximum temperature are 20^o C and 40^o C respectively. Mean annual precipitation varies from less than 100mm in the West to 200mm in the East, mainly falling during monsoon (July to September). Precipitation is very inconsistent in quantity and duration and prolonged droughts are common once every 10 years. Temperatures are high in summer and mild in winter with no frost.

2.4.4    Extent of Cholistan Desert

Cholistan desert consists of an area of 2,591,093.12 ha of old Bhawalpur Estate and is spread over Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar and Rahim Yar Khan Districts of Bahawalpur civil division.

2.4.5    Ecology and Vegetation.

The vegetation of Cholistan consists of xerophytic trees, shrubs and grasses. Johnston and Hussain (1963) characterized the Cholistan vegetation as Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type. Sheikh (1986) categorized Cholistan vegetation as sand dune, desert scrub. The three major range types found in Cholistan are Lasiurus-sindicus/Haloxylon-salicornicum; Eleusine compressa/Haloxylon salicornicum; Haloxylon recurum/Salsola foetida and Suaeda fruticosa (Government of the Punjab, 1974).

The predominant tree species, shrubs and grasses are as under:

a).        Jand (Prosopis cineraria), Frash (Tamarix aphylla), Wan     (Salvadoraole oides),Mallah ( Zizyphus nummularia), Ber (Zizyphus jujuba), Kikar (Acacia nilotica), Kikari (Acacia jacquemontii),

b).        Lana (Haloxylon saincoricum), Karir (Capparis aphylla), Phog (Calligonum polygonoides)

c).        Dhaman (Cenchrus cilliaris), Khabbal (Cynodon dactylon), Khawai (Cymbopogon jwarancsa),             Chhimber (Eleusine flagellifera), Murgha (Dicanthium annulatum), Lumb(Aristida depressa), Gorkha (Elionurus hirsutus)

The main vegetation types based on floristically dominant and structurallyimportant species are described below.

• Haloxylon-Calligonum Community.

This is a widespread community type dominated by leafless shrubs of Haloxylonstocksii and Calligonum polygonoides.Other associated species include Lasiurusscindicus, Cymbopogon, jwarancusa, Suaeda fruticosa, Dipterygium glaucum, Crotalaria burhia, etc. This type of communities generally covers flat plains with compactsoil and saline conditions. Several species of annuals and ephemeral semerge after rains, covering the ground but contributing very little biomass. The shrubs have strong root systems and hold the soil together protecting the soil from wind erosion.

• Acacia-Tamarix Community

The Acacia nilotica and Tamarix aphylla community is found in peripheral areas of Cholistan. Acacia nilotica is locally considered as poor man’s teak wood forits valuable timber used for cheap furnitureand agriculture implements. Leaves provide forage for livestock. Tamarix branch esare used for thatching rooftops and fences around livestock enclosures. Treesal so provide shade for resting livestock seeking shelter from strong sun. Several species of grasses and herbs are associated with these communities like Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Eragrostis, Fagonia, Dipterygium, Indigofera, etc. Large hemispherical clumps of Heliotropium crispum are common in the peripheral regions of the desert which hold soil from erosion and conserve water.

• Prosopis-Salvadora Community

The Prosopis cineraria and Salvadoraole oides community is generally found in Lesser Cholistan regions where rainfall isnot less than 100mm. Prosopis cineraria is considered as an excellent forage species with a very deep root system, very well adapted to the desert conditions. The branches are extensively lopped for feeding young lambs and goats not able to roam around for forage. Generally the top shoots are left for future growth and lower branches are cut for livestock. It also forms excellent firewood for cooking as well as charcoal making. Salvadora oleoides is an evergreen tree with deformed trunk and a deep root system heavily grazed by camels and goats. It is a very slow growing tree with poor regeneration through seeds but it profusely produces suckers forming large clumps. Sometimes only clump-forming large bushy structures are seen due to heavy browsing; tree-like shape is rare; ripe fruits are also edible. Other associated species include Acacianilotica, Zizyphus nummularia, Tamarixaphylla, grass species like Lasiurus, Cymbopogon, Sporobolus, Panicum, Cenchrus,

Aristida, etc. Some annuals associatedwith this community include Zygophyllum,

Dipterygium, Indigofera, Glinus, Fagonia,Heliotropium etc.

• Lasiurus-Cymbopogon Community

Perennial species of clump forming grass species like Lasiurus scindicus and Cymbo pogonjwarancusa are developed on poorer soils on flat plains with compact soil. This community type is generally poor in species diversity, having mainly annual short-lived species appearing after rains. These grass species are palatable in earliest age of growth; coarse hard old leaves are not generally grazed. Lasiurus scindicus and Cymbopogon jwarancusaare abundantly distributed throughout the Cholistan Desert. Scattered shrubs of Haloxylon, Suaeda, Crotalaria,

Aerua are also sparsely found.

• Acacia-Pennisetum Community

Acacia jacquemontii and Pennisetum divisumare generally associated with dry water courses with better soil and moisturere tention capacity. Acacia jacquemontii isatall shrub by species with extensive branching from the base. It is a good foragespecies and a preferred firewood shrub in the desert. Pennisetum divisum is a tall large clump-forming grass with a good soil-binding ability preventing soil erosion from strong winds and flash floods. This is an excellent fodder grass relished by livestock producing green tender leaves in minimum moisture conditions. Other associated species include species of Convolvulus, Launnaea, Indigofera, Tribulus,Trianthema, Neurada, etc. Severalgrass species include Ochthochloa, Panicum,Aeluropus, Stipagrostis, Cenchrus, etc.

• Aerua-Crotalaria Community

This community is common on poor saline soils. Usually, large shrubs and trees area sent. Grasses like Sporobolus, Ochthochloa, and Desmostachya species are found having stiff leaves, grazed when young. They are usually found in interdunal saline sandy soils.

• Capparis-Suaeda Community

Capparis aphylla and Suaeda fruticosaare also widespread in poor soils with inadequate moisture contents. Capparis aphylla, a leafless shrub, sometimes attains tree-like form; its branches are used for thatching roof tops. Suaeda fruticosa forms evergreen large-sized bushy dome like clumps; leaves are reduced to scales. Vegetation is very sparse, poor in species diversity; short-lived annual plants appear after rains for a short period.

• Leptadenia-Calotropis Community

The Leptadenia pyrotechnica and Calotropisprocera community develops in poor sandy soils; not palatable for livestock, it spreads in areas with heavy grazing pressure. Leptadenia pyrotechnica is a much branched leafless shrub not grazed by

livestock but the branches are used for thatching roofs and fencing. Cyperus conglomerates is a compact clump forming sedge with roots having good sand-binding ability, found frequently on sand dunes under poor moisture conditions,

grazed when young.

The vegetation in Cholistan is typical of arid and semiarid climate consisting of xerophytic species adapted to high temperatures, low humidity, moisture fluctuations and wide variety of edaphic conditions. Compared to the hyper arid southern region, the vegetation cover is relatively better in eastern Cholistan(200mm rainfall zone). A wide range of nutritious and drought-tolerant plant species(128 species belonging to 33 families)of grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees occupy this desert. Hardy species adapted to high temperature and low soil moisture includes Lasiurus scindicus, Sporobolusiocladus, Aeluropus lagopoides andCyperus onglomerates.

2.4.6    Range condition and Trend

In a study conducted by Akhtar and Arshad (2006) reported that some xeric plant species do survive in Cholistan desert during severe droughts but undergo tremendous grazing pressure leading to partial eradication; as result, the flora have been thinning out gradually with the increasing severity of desertification. Their report points out a downward trend in range condition of Cholistan.

2.4.7    Range improvement practices

The details of rangeland development intervention made from the year, 1974-75 to 2011-12 are as under:-

Table 16. Detail of rangeland development interventions in Cholistan (1974-75 to 2011-12)
S.No	Development Works	Unit	Development	Non-Dev.	Total
1	Reseeding of grasses	ha	1027	171	1198
2	Afforestation works	ha	40	50	90
3	Construction of water ponds	No	613	135	748
4	Construction of pasture roads	Km	3627	1150	4777
5	Raising of bed nursery	ha	25	-	25
6	Raising of grass seed nursery	ha	14	-	14
7	Installation of tube wells	No	1	-	1
8	Installation of hand pumps	No	26	-	26
9	Grass tuft planting	No	3000	-	3000
10	Tibba Planting	Ha	1336	-	1336

(Source: Range Management Circle Lahore, 2012)